There was an uninterrupted literary
tradition in Ancient India. This literature
was produced in the Sanskrit,
Ardhamagadhi, Pali and Tamil languages.
It included religious literature, treatises on
grammar, epics, plays, stories, etc.
Sangham Literature : ‘Sangham’
means a gathering of learned men. The
literature compiled in such gatherings is
known as ‘Sangham Literature’. It is the
most ancient literature in Tamil.
‘Silappadhikaram’ and ‘Manimekhalai’
are two of its well-known epics. From
Sangham literature, we learn about the
political and social life in South India
during the period.
Religious literature : The important
texts include Aagamgranth, Tipitaka and
Bhagwad Gita.
The ‘Jain Agamgranthas’ are written
in the Prakrit languages of Ardhamagadhi,
Shaurseni and Maharashtri. The
Agamgranthas are a collection of the
teachings of Vardhaman Mahavir. Literary
works like Mahapuranas, biographies,
stories, etc. are available in the
Apabhramsha language. Siddhasen
Diwakar wrote ‘Sammaisutta’ a work in
Prakrit, on jurisprudence. Vimalsuri has
told the story of Rama in ‘Paumchariya’,
a poetic work in Prakrit. Haribhadrasuri’s
‘Samaraichchakaha’ and Udyotansuri’s
‘Kuvalayamalakaha’ are well known
works.
Tipitika has three pitaka’s or parts.
The word pitaka means a basket or
collections. Here, it means a section. The
Tipitaka is written in Pali. It consists of
three categories of texts. 1. Sutta Pitaka : It
includes the texts of Gautama Buddhas
teachings or sermons. They are called
suktas. 2. Vinay Pitaka : The word Vinay
here means ‘rules’. The Vinay Pitaka gives
the rules of behaviour which bhikkhus and
bhikkhunis in the Bauddha Sangha should
follow in their day-to-day lives.
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka : In this, Buddhist
doctrine has been explained. A text titled
‘Attakatha’ (Arthakatha) which explains
the Tipitakas, is well-known. Learned
women composed gathas (narratives)
about their own experiences. They have
been compiled in the ‘Therigatha’. They
are in the Pali language.
The ‘Bhagvad Gita’, which is a sacred text of the Hindus, is a part of the
Mahabharata. The Bhagvad Gita tells us
that each one of us should do our duty
without expecting rewards. It also says
that the path of devotion to God is open
to all.
Adi Shankaracharya lived during the
eighth century CE. He emphasised
knowledge and renunciation. He wrote
commentaries explaining the ‘Upanishads’,
‘Brahmasutras’ and the ‘Bhagvad Gita’.
He established four muths in four directions
of India at Badrinath, Dwarka,
Jagannathpuri and Shringeri. Kautilya wrote the Arthashastra in
which he discusses at length, what
constitutes on excellent administrative
system.
Treatises on Grammar :
‘Ashtadhyayi’ written by the grammarian
Panini is considered to be the standard
work on Sanskrit grammar. Patanjali wrote
‘Mahabhashya’. It explains the principles
given in Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’.Arsha and classical epics :
‘Ramayana’ and ‘Mahabharata’ are the
two ‘Arsha’ epics of ancient India. ‘Arsha’
means composed by rishis or sages. The
‘Ramayana’ was composed by the rishi
‘Valmiki’. The main character of
Ramayana is Shriram. ‘Mahabharata’ has
been composed by the Sage Vyas. Its main
theme is the war between the Kauravas
and Pandavas. It also tells us about Lord
Krishna’s life. The Mahabharata provides
a comprehensive picture of the various
human sentiments and emotions and their
consequences.
Sometimes, there is such a period in
the history of language, literature and art,
that its glory remains undiminished even
later on. The art, literature, etc. produced
in such a period is said to be ‘classical’.
‘Raghuvansha’ and ‘Kumarsambhava’ by
Kalidasa, ‘Kiratarjuniya’ by Bharavi and
‘Shishupalvadh’ by Magha are well-known
compositions of the ancient period written
in classical Sanskrit.
Theatre : India has an ancient tradition
of telling a story through songs, music and
dance. These arts have been discussed in
great detail in the ‘Natyashastra’ by
Bharatmuni. When these arts are presented with supporting dialogues, they are known
as theatre. Among the ancient Sanskrit
plays, ‘Swapnavasavadutta’ by Bhasa,
‘Abhijnanshakuntal’ by Kalidasa, etc. are
famous.
Narrative Literature ः In the ancient
times, storytelling was used to educate
people through entertainment. Gunadhya’s
‘Bruhatkatha’ written in a language called
‘Paishachi’ is well-known. ‘Panchatantra’
composed by Pandit Vishnusharma is an
excellent example of narrative literature.
This text has been translated into many
languages. Similarly, Baudhha Jataka
tales are also very well-known.
10.3 Science
Medicine : Indian medical science is
known as ‘Ayurveda’. It has a very old
tradition. It seeks to understand the
symptoms of an illness, its diagnosis and
treatment. Also, much thought has been
given to prevention of illness. Jeevaka was
a well known vaidya, at the court of King
Bimbisara. The ‘Charaka Samhita’ contains
detailed information about clinical diagnosis
and pharmacy. It was written by Charak.
The famous surgeon Sushruta has discussed
the diagnosis of different ailments and their
remedies in his treatise the ‘Sushruta
Samhita’. The importance of this text is
that it discusses the different causes leading
to injuries, fractures, their types and the
various types of surgeries required for them.
The text was translated into the Arabic
language and was called ‘Kitaab-e-susud’.
Vagbhata also wrote many books on
medical science. The ‘Ashtang-sangraha’
and ‘Ashtang-hridayasamhita’ are the most
important of them. The Bauddha bhikkhu,
Siddha Nagarjuna in his book
‘Rasaratnakara’ describes various
chemicals and metals.
Mathematics and Astronomy : The
ancient Indians had studied Mathematics
and Astronomy at great depth. Indians
were the first to use the numerals 1 to 9
and zero. They invented the concept of
decimal system in which the value of a
digit changes according to its place ekam,
daham, (units, tens) etc. The scientist
Aryabhata wrote the book ‘Aryabhatiya’,
which included many formulae for
mathematical operations. Aryabhata was
also an astronomer. He stated that the
earth revolves around the sun. Varahmihir
wrote the famous text ‘Panchasidhantika’
in the sixth century AD. This text discusses
principles of Indian astronomy along with
the principles of astronomy from the Greek,
Roman and Egyptian civilizations. The
10.2 Life of the people
The literature of ancient India sheds
light on the way of life of the common
people of the time. Those were prosperous
times, due to the flourishing internal as
well as foreign trade. The society was
divided into different castes. There were
organizations of traders as well as artisans.
These organizations were called shrenis.
Trade was carried out by sea as well as
land routes. Indian goods like fine textiles,
ivory, precious stones, spices, beautifully
made earthern pottery were in great
demand in foreign countries. The main
crops were rice, wheat, barley and lentil
(masoor). The diet of the people included
food items made from these besides meat,
fish, milk, ghee and fruits. The people
mostly wore cotton garments, though silk
and woollen garments were also worn.
Their clothes resembled today’s dhoti,
uparane, mundase, saree, etc. The concept
of stitching clothes was introduced in India
during the Kushana period. texts of the mathematician Brahmagupta
who lived in the seventh century CE, were
translated into the Arabic language.Centres of education
There were many famous centres of
education in ancient India. Students from
other countries also came there for their
studies.
Takshashila University : Takshashila
was an important city on the ancient Indian
trade route. Today, it is in Pakistan.
Archaeological evidence found there
suggests that the city was established in
the sixth century BCE Jeevaka, a
contemporary of Gautama Buddha and a
famous vaidya, had studied at Takshashila
University. By the fourth century BCE, the
fame of the university had spread far and
wide. Chandragupta Maurya the founder
of the Maurya Empire was educated at this
university. The grammarian Panini and the
vaidya Charaka were also students of
Takshashila University. The Greek
historians who accompanied Alexander
have also given a description of the
university. They have stated that such
a university did not exist anywhere in
Greece. The famous Chinese Bauddha
bhikkhu, Fa Hien who came to India
around 400 CE also visited the Takshashila
University. The university provided
education in various subjects such as Vedic literature, Buddhist philosophy, economics,
logic, etc.
Varanasi : The river Ganga has two
tributaries - Varana and Asi. The city
located between them came to be called
Varanasi. Since ancient times, it has had
centres which provided education in the
areas of Vedic as well as Jain and Buddhist
philosophy.
Valabhi : Valabhi was an ancient city
in Saurashtra, Gujarat. From the fifth to
the eighth century CE, it was an important
centre of Jain and Buddhist philosophy.
Yuan Chwang and Itsing, the Chinese
Bauddha bhikkhus had visited Valabhi.
Nalanda University : The remains of
the ancient Nalanda University can be
found near today’s Patna city in Bihar.
Emperor Harshavardhan made generous
donations to this university. According to
the descriptions of Yuan Chwang and
Itsing, Nalanda University could
accommodate thousands of students. The
library stocked thousands of books.
Students seeking admission to the university
had to appear for an examination at the
entrance gate.Vikramshila University : This
university was located near today’s
Bhagalpur in Bihar. It was established by
a king named Dharmapal in the eighth
century CE. It had six viharas, each having
its own separate entrance.Kanchi : During the reign of the
Pallava dynasty (sixth century CE), Kanchi
in Tamil Nadu, emerged as an important
centre of education. It was a centre for the
teaching and learning of Vedic, Jain and
Buddhist texts.
10.5 Art and architecture
Indian architecture reached its peak
during the Maurya and the Gupta periods.
The stone pillars erected by Emperor
Ashoka at various places are excellent
examples of Indian sculpture. The stupa at
Sanchi and cave sculptures at Udayagiri,
Khandagiri, Karla, Nashik, Ajanta, Ellora,
etc. show that the same tradition advanced
even further. The art of making images
was developed during the Gupta period.
Temple architecture developed during the
reigns of the Chalukya and Pallava
dynasties in South India. The temples of
Mahabalipuram are a testimony to this
architecture. The art of making bronze
The stupa at Sanchi
images of deities emerged during the
period of the Pallavas. The iron pillar at
Mehrauli near Delhi is evidence of the
advanced knowledge of metallurgy of the
ancient Indians.
Thus, it is clear that ancient Indian
culture was very prosperous and advanced.
In the next chapter, we will study India’s
contact with other civilisations and its
far-reaching impact.
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