with success and the public got a glimpse of the united power of women. The Chipko movement : Another
show of constructive woman power was seen during the Chipko movement in 1973.Trees from the forests in the foothills ofthe Himalayas were to be cut down for
commercial purposes. Chandiprasad Bhat and Sunderlal
Bahuguna had started amovement to prevent this.
Women followed the strategy of holding hands and encircling each tree. As their method consisted of protecting the When we study the condition of women in India we realise that the roots of several of the problems they face lie in the mentality of men. Even in the twentyfirst century, we have not been able to rid ourselves of this male-centred mentality. Vinoba Bhave made use of woman power in the Bhoodan Movement which
he had started placing his faith in Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy. Women volunteers carried the message of Bhoodan to allparts of India. Women played a significant
role in the Telangana Peasants Armed Struggle which challenged the rule of the nizams and the feudal system. As theirregion became free from bonded labour,women also found freedom from this torment. Know this.
Number of women per one thousand men
No. Year of Census Number of women
1. 1951 946
2. 1661 941
3. 1971 930
4. 1981 934
5. 1991 927
6. 2001 933
Find out the reasons why the number of women per one thousand men in the population has been decreasing.
Mrinal Gore Sundarlal Bahugunatree by embracing it, the movement came to be known as the Chipko movement.
Women took part in it in large numbers.Women had a big
role to play in the agricultural economy of this region. Gaura Devi was the activist who created this awareness among the women with the help of Sudesha Devi and Bachani Devi. Anti-liquor movement : In 1992, in Andhra Pradesh, a movement was started against the drinking of alcohol. It received a good response in other States too. When the head of the household dies an untimely death due to addiction to alcohol, the family faces a serious crisis which affects women the most. Due to alcoholism, they have to
deal with extreme sorrow and poverty. This movement got the support of the anti-arrack movement in Andhra Pradesh. As a result of a government policy, arrack (a locally produced alcohol) dealers set up shop in every town and village. The poor labouring people began to get addicted to alcohol. At the same time, a literacy programme was being run in the villages of the State. The Sitama Katha (Sita’s story) was narrated as a part of this programme. It was a story about Sita who creates awareness among the people of a village and gets alcohol to be banned from
the village. In 1992, three youths of Dubuganta village of Nellore district in Andhra Pradesh drowned in a lake, in a
state of inebriation, and died. At this instance, the women of the village came together and forced the closure of arrack shops. The report of this news in the local newspapers had its effect on many other villages. The movement spread to the entire State and the government had to adopt a strict policy against the sale of alcohol. International Women’s Year : The United Nations had declared 1975 as the International Women’s Year. The three aspects of this programme were peace, development and equality between men and women. In 1975, the government of India constituted the Committee on the Status of Women and appointed Dr PhulrenuGuha as its Chairman. A comprehensive survey was conducted of several issues such as the social position of women, their status,the consequences of the constitutional provisions made for
women as also education of women and its percentage, their progress due to education, difficulties faced by working women, the position of women with respect
to work/livelihood, their wages (relative to men’s wages), the female-male ratio, birth and mortality rates and the role of women. Taking into consideration this entire
background, a State-wide conference for women was held in 1975 organised by the Stree-mukti Sangharsha Samiti. Women from all walks of life /regions participated in it. The Samiti published its manifesto in 1978. The policy of a struggle against discrimination on the basis of gender, caste and varna was adopted.This gave rise to a collection of songs called Streemuktichi Lalkari, a street play called Mulgi Jhaali Ho by Jyoti Mhapsekar and a periodical
called Prerak Lalkari which became their mouthpiece, and other such programmes. In 1977, groups like the Streemukti Andolan Samiti established by Soudamini Rao in Pune, Bayaja a fortnightly, as also Stree Uvach, Maitrin and Stree Anyayavirodhi Manch in Aurangabad, Mahila Dakshata Samiti in Kolhapur, Mahila Hakka in Nashik and Nari Prabodhan Manch in Latur were formed. Anti-dowry protectioncommittees were formed all over Maharashtra. A conference to protestagainst oppression of women was organisedin Dhule city. Vidya Bal’s periodicals, Nari Samata
Manch, and Milun Saryajani, as also the work of the Samajwadi Mahila Sabha andthe Krantikari Mahila Sanghatana were of great help in dealing with women’s issues.The Employment Guarantee Scheme in Maharashtra also helped to empowerwomen. Pramila Dandavate established the Mahila Dakshata Samiti in Delhi in
1976. Branches of the Samiti came up in the States of
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab. The Communist
Party established the Akhil Bharatiya Janavadi Mahila Sanghatana in 1980. Efforts were made to start branches of this Organisation in all parts of India. The Sanghatana started a struggle against issues like dowry, female foeticide, domestic abuse. Research on women‘s issues was undertaken at various levels. Women’s Studies Centres were started at the first women’s university, the Shrimati
Nathibai Damodar Thakersey (SNDT) Women’s University, Mumbai, and at Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai,
Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune and Shivaji University, Kolhapur. These Centres played an important role in critical analysis and in developing a vision on women’s issues.
Laws for women: The law enactedin 1952, recognises women’s right to alimony and their share in the father’s
property. Her right to streedhan was recognised. Polygamy was made illegal and women, just like men, got the right to
sue for divorce. It was a law that took one step forward concerning women’s issues over the following decade. The
Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961 made both giving and taking of dowry a cognizable criminal offence. This dismantled the
dowry tradition by its roots and further encouraged the social movement. The law alleviated the distress to women caused by the undesirable tradition of dowry. The Maternity Benefit Act which gave women the right to get leave from work atthe time of child-birth also came into force
in 1961.
Awareness against the dowry tradition: Even after the enactment of the anti-dowry law, incidents like ‘Woman
burns to death as sari pallu catches fire while cooking’ and ‘Woman slips into well while washing clothes, drowns and dies’ continued to be reported. Investigations still revealed dowry to be the most frequent cause of such deaths. The role of thepolice, the administration and judiciary were highlighted. This created greater awareness. As a result, the Dowry Prohibition (Amendment) Act came into force in 1984. In 1988, 2209 women died victim to the dowry tradition. In 1990 the number of dowry deaths was 4835 and in 1993, it was 5377. These numbers will impress upon you the seriousness of the issue. Family Courts (1984) : Family courts were established to resolve conflicts arising
out of differences within marriage and
domestic problems as well as issues such
as alimony, single parenthood, separation,
care of children and ownership which are
all related to the family situation. These
family courts give priority to mutual
understanding over witnesses and evidence
and to counsellors over lawyers. Emphasis
is on resolving issues quickly but justly.
Trial involving alimony (1985): A
fixed amount paid to a married woman
for her upkeep by the husband who has
divorced her, is called alimony. In the case
of Mohammad Ahmed Khan vs Shah
Bano Begum, the Supreme Court gave the
verdict that Shah Bano Begum had the
right to alimony. However, religious
organisations protested vociferously against
the verdict. As a result, the ‘Muslim
Women’s Act’ (Protection of rights on
divorce) was passed by Parliament.
The Commission of Sati (Prevention)
Act: On 4th September 1987, Roop Kanwar,
a married woman, committed sati. She did
not do this of her own free will; she was
coerced into doing so. Committing sati,
glorifying the practice of sati were all
illegal acts. The women activists and
journalists, Meena Menon, Geeta Seshu,
Sujata Anandan, Anu Joseph and Kalpana
Sharma investigated the case. In 1988, the
government passed the Sati (Prevention)
Act with very stringent provisions.
Protection of Human Rights Act : In
1993, this law was enacted to prevent
injustice to men and women. The National
Human Rights Commission was also
formed for this purpose. In some States, the
State Human Rights Commission was also
formed on the same lines. This law which
deals with collective oppression, the social
conditions of divorced women, women and
secure work places, played an effective
role in mitigating injustices to women.
Reservation for Women : The 73rd
and 74th amendments to the Constitution
provide for reservation of one-third of the
seats for women in Gram Panchayats,
Panchayat Samitis, Zilla Parishads,
municipalities and municipal corporations
as well as for the posts of Sarpanch,
Chairman and Mayor. Maharashtra and 15
other States have reserved 50% seats for
women. This provision provides women
the opportunity to participate in the
business of the community.
In the post-independence period, the
Constitution of India accepted the principle
of equality of men and women. Hence,
women got the important political right to
vote. Women got equal rights to education
and work on par with men. Inhuman
practices like sati, dowry and polygamy
were banned by law. Women’s right to sue
for divorce was recognised. They got a
lawful share in property. In local selfgovernment bodies, seats were reserved for
women so that they would have their just share of political power. We see today that,
due to these provisions, women have begun
to get education and to earn. Also, due to
ideas of women’s liberation, women are
developing a sense of self. They have begun
to participate enthusiastically and with
determination in all fields of education,
earning money, administration, politics,
etc.
Scheduled Castes : In the postindependence period, our Constitution
adopted the values of freedom, equality,
fraternity and social justice. In accordance
with his, the practice of untouchability was
banned by law. Untouchability was
removed by the 17th paragraph of the
Constitution and this class was included
in the Scheduled Castes. In view of the
educational and social backwardness of
scheduled castes, they were given
reservations in education as well as jobs
to facilitate their development.
Scheduled Tribes : Just like the
Scheduled Castes, the Scheduled Tribes or
Adivasis who live in remote parts of the
country also face several difficulties. As
they have lived far away from the progress
made in modern times, they are
economically and socially backward. Even
though their conditions have seen some
improvement in recent times, they do not
have any means of livelihood other than
agriculture and forest produce. Modern
farming implements have not yet reached
them. Hence, their income from agriculture
is very small. Besides, their fields are on
hillsides and not fertile. They are
malnourished due to insufficient and poor
quality of diet. Adivasis in remote areas
find it difficult to get medical attention in
time. For all these reasons, there is a need
to give special protection to Adivasis.
In the Indian Constitution, Adivasis
have been enumerated as Scheduled
Tribes. They are getting given
representation in law boards, education,
government service, etc.
Nomadic and De-notified Tribes :
Castes and tribes that move from place to
place for a livelihood, are included under
Nomadic Tribes. They live by rearing
animals and engaging in some other
occupations. The British had declared
some of them as criminal tribes. In the
Law of 1871 to curb crimes, some of the
main groups were mentioned as criminal
tribes and their occupations and movements
were banned.
This unjust law was repealed in the
post-independence period. And the curbs
on these tribes were lifted. They were
included under De-notified Tribes. Special
efforts are made by the government for
the purpose of their social and economic
development. These tribes have been given
representation in educational institutions
and the government sector.Minorities : In any society, a group
of people of a particular religion, language
or race who are few in number are termed
a minority. As there are various religions,
sects and languages in our country, we see
great cultural diversity. There is variation
in cultural traditions, too. In order to
preserve their cultural traditions and
develop their own language, the
Constitution gives the citizens certain
educational and cultural rights. Minorities
have the right to protect and conserve their
language, culture and traditions. For this
purpose they have the right to set up
separate educational institutions. The
government implements various schemes
for their progress.
In the next chapter, we shall learn
about the progress that India has made in
the field of Science and Technology in the
post-independence period.
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